The Liberal Governments Welfare Reforms in the years 1906-1914 Essay Example for Free

The Liberal Governments Welfare Reforms in the years 1906-1914 Essay Was New Liberalism the most significant factor behind the Liberal Governments Welfare Reforms in the years 1906-1914? Clarify your answer. New Liberalism was just a belief system, incorporating changes prodded by other, progressively significant components. Vitally was the need to change, in regards to the low national effectiveness. As a 1905 report said No nation, anyway rich, can for all time stand its ground in the race of global rivalry whenever hampered by an expanding heap of dead weight [of poverty]. Besides, was the craving to change, which housed motivations, for example, the destitution, good and social commitment, and unmistakable constituent triumph. New Liberalism didnt inspire change; it basically housed different components for it. Albeit New Liberalism as another belief system requested change in the Party, it is too unclear a factor to have had any immediate connection with the changes of 1906-14. In this angle, it was an umbrella factor. New Liberalism was maybe inescapable, as Churchill said this poor man is here because of monetary causes which have been excessively long unregulated at the end of the day, the acknowledgment independence wasnt working. Without a doubt, the belief system was not so much as a result of the Liberals, however became out of a scholarly custom detailed by L.T. Hobhouse and J. Hobson during the 1880s, contending that if individuals were devastated through no shortcoming of their own, independence was subverted. Thusly, New Liberalism was only the entrepreneurial side-effect of the agreeing discoveries of Hobhouse with the compositions of Booth and Rowntree, which raised good and social mindfulness. New Liberalism was obvious in all the changes of the gathering, contradicting old radicalism, a case of which is the National protection Act, 1911. Being legislatively meddling, and along these lines customarily hostile to leftist, this tossed aside the shows of regular workers apathy and furnished the specialist with cash and employment systems administration should he be jobless. In any case, critical however it is, the vast majority of the changes likewise acted in light of a legitimate concern for national effectiveness, thus the condition of the country on a worldwide scale was a major motivating force to present collectivist arrangements, if not the greatest. Enrollment for the Boer War of 1898 featured how poor the countries wellbeing was, the point at which 33% of the populace were unfit to battle. Besides, Britain battled to overcome the Boers, regardless of being a major, majestic country, and them a poor, immaterial power. Subsequently, through the introduction of the countries unexpected weakness, the Childrens Charter was presented. This included the free school suppers demonstration of 1906, in which neighborhood specialists were enabled to give free school dinners to penniless kids, on the off chance that they wished to utilize it, and by 1914, this got necessary (the past Conservative government had would not tune in to the crusade). So also, in 1907, the Liberals presented mandatory clinical assessments in schools, and again in 1912, government awards were made accessible to cover treatment and school facilities started to be set up. This measure shows the legislature were understanding that, to keep their nation and realm extraordinary, they needed to have greater association in the support of the country. In like manner, when Beveridge and Lloyd George - stressed over joblessness visited Germany and saw the changes they and different nations were making, there is no uncertainty they took impact from them, thus comparable arrangements were presented in England. Germany was developing monetarily, and Britain falling behind as far as monetary development; along these lines, the mimicking Insurance Act of 1910-11 was delivered. This demonstrated a push to support proficiency by legitimately shadowing Germany, at this point colossally prosperous, in the want to improve their own nation monetarily as well. Likewise, the discoveries of Booth and Rowntree as well, at last helped lead to social change through their arrangement of genuine, factual proof expected to support the case for state mediation. Charles Booth completed a progression of examinations in London, uncovering that 30% of the populace were living in wretched destitution, including 45% of elderly individuals. It was found that, as opposed to prevalent thinking, individuals were poor in light of variables, for example, mature age, affliction, and a failing to meet expectations economy. In this manner, Booth sorted out and drove a crusade for a framework benefits paid for out of tax assessment, which won Labor and Trade Union help, and which would have recuperated the issue of neediness for the older.. By no happenstance was the Old Age Pensions Act spent 3 years after the fact, which paying attention to the guidance of Booth was a non-contributory plan, financed by the administration out of tax assessment, and giving 5 shillings per week to those beyond 70 years old. Moreover, to conciliate destitution from joblessness, the administration set up a work trade and protection head; making a system of trade data about neighborhood work, and furthermore arranged a specialists protection plot which laborers would pay into and, in the midst of the previously mentioned neediness, draw on what they required. The good and social equity remembered for Booth and Rowntrees work was a tremendous contributing component in the Old Age Pensions Act of 1908, to a great extent viewed as a critical advance forward as far as administrative intercession. Lloyd George additionally connected the two, by 1911 seeing The organization of the Old Age Pension Act has uncovered a mass of destitution. Good and social equity were at the core of numerous other Liberal arrangements, for instance; the ethical commitment to help the evil specialist showed in the Health Insurance Act, 1911, through which a store was made that the laborer would pay four pence into, the business three, and the state two. At the point when the laborer was off work sick, they would get ten shillings seven days wiped out compensation for 13 weeks, Moreover, the Liberals despite everything needed to deliver arrangements that separated them from the Conservatives. The free school suppers strategy, for instance, legitimately recognized them, as the Tories had wouldn't pass the demonstration a couple of years prior, as did they with the Peoples Budget. Lloyd Georges Budget clashed with the Tory belief system of not burdening the rich, with the Liberal government hoping to give additional money to the mature age benefits and man of war vessels [and] outmaneuver the House of Lords (Pearce Stewart). An extra à ¯Ã¢ ¿Ã¢ ½7 million was raised by expanding higher paces of personal duty on those acquiring over à ¯Ã¢ ¿Ã¢ ½3,00 per annum, basically focusing on the rich, which clashed with the center of Conservative qualities. Radicalism had the advantage on Conservatism. The lawmakers of the gathering needed to separate Liberalism, yet in addition themselves as political heavyweights. For instance, Churchills Trade Boards Act (1909) kicked off something new, guarding the laborers Charles Booth had named an assemblage of careless, starving contenders for work, however like a considerable lot of the Liberals approaches it wasnt home developed, and the situation of the perspired enterprises had been plugged by the National Anti-Sweating League. Lloyd George is another prime model, and recorded understanding recommends his proposed protected change of the Lords was an endeavor to put himself on the political guide, power the withdraw of the Lords (peers against the individuals) just as winning decisions on the rear of this discussion. His Peoples Budget drew on the reactions propelled on the House of Lords for rejecting a financial plan on fiscal issues cash, obviously, gave by the citizen , and them being selected supporters something Lloyd George stressed in following exposure. Without a doubt, Beatrice Webb has contended Lloyd George and Winston Churchill have for all intents and purposes taken the spotlight, not just from their own partners, however from the Labor Party. With the Labor Party demonstrating a developing danger electorally, New Liberalism was an endeavor to spike the firearms [Beatrice Webb] of the gathering through famous communist changes. Work increased 29 seats in the 1906 political decision, and up until that point, the Liberals had been mostly out of intensity, driving them to perceive Labor as a danger. As an outcome of this opposition, the Trade Disputes Act (1906), which turned around the Taff Vale choice and would increase imperative average workers votes, was taken from the Labor Partys own bill, and restored the option to strike and picket calmly to the Unions. The Liberals acknowledged whether they didnt convey, Labor would keep on developing. Once more, The Mines Act of 1908, which presented a greatest eight-hour working day for diggers, ( a political trade off Pearce Stewart) was another change which Labor were thoughtful as well. Besides, with stretched out testimonial to the common laborers, Liberals needed to get the working keeps an eye on vote, thus their communist changes came when Labors firearms would have been generally speaking to the electorate. Generally speaking, unmistakably the Welfare Reforms were affected completely on the atmosphere of the time, and New Liberalism just put a name to this. Truly, good and social equity uncovered by Booth and Rowntree were significant, and the gathering despite everything needed to choose their political personality, however neediness and its shamefulness had been around for a considerable length of time and change could have paused if need be; moreover, Labor, in spite of the fact that demonstrating potential, were not a genuine danger until certain years after the fact. The government assistance changes were presented in light of the fact that Britain as a nation was coming up short, and New Liberalist Reforms were, (seemingly), only a semi-communist pretense concentrated on expanding national effectiveness. This isn't to imply that the changes wouldnt have ever been presented had Britain not battled with the Boers; they would have been deferred, and were made in 1906-14 as a response to the (global) condition of the country.

William Wordsworth Essay Example

William Wordsworth Paper William Wordsworth was conceived in Cumberland. Wordsworth entered Cambridge University in 1787, the year he finished his first noteworthy sonnet. Wordsworth is viewed as the most significant English sentimental writer. Wordsworth has likewise been adulated for his portrayals of nature. In any case, he generally asserted that his essential intrigue was The Mind Of Man. His best sonnets incorporate Michael, the Lucy verses, The Solitary Reaper, and Resolution and Independence, perform how creative mind makes otherworldly qualities out of memory of sights and hints of nature. Seamus Heaney is an Irish Poet, taught at St. Columb's College, Derry, and Queens University Belfast. In the 1960's he had a place with a gathering of writers in Belfast, who, he stated, Used to talk verse for quite a while with a power and preference that can't however have left a blemish on us all. Subsequent to addressing on verse at Queens for a long time he moved in to the Republic Of Ireland, living first in Co. Wicklow and afterward in Dublin. The principal sonnet which we took a gander at was William Wordsworth's Nutting. The title of this sonnet is amazingly dubious and it doesn't reveal to us nothing about the sonnet itself. As I read the sonnet we see that it is considering a memory, It appears to be a day. It is a memory of his youth days and this idea holds an everlasting spot in his heart and brain. We will compose a custom paper test on William Wordsworth explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom paper test on William Wordsworth explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom article test on William Wordsworth explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer Perusing on we feel that the state of mind is going to change and he begins to look at his appearance. He is pleased with the manner in which he is dressed and what he is doing. He is thinking back his adolescence of when he goes out and gathers nuts and finds that he demolishes the entire region. He is disheartened that he has annihilated Dearest Maiden (the unstoppable force of life) and he leaves the scene upset and doesnt need the sky to meddle with what he has done. The second sonnet which we took a gander at was Blackberry Picking via Seamus Heany. The title proposes to us that it is Summer time and he is setting off on an experience in late August. It starts with, Late August, given overwhelming precipitation and Sun, which is fundamental for blackberry development. The blackberries would mature which proposes new life and incredible fear since he is taking as much time as is needed. The blackberries are as Hard as a bunch. This is utilized as a likeness with the goal that we realize that we are involved. All through the sonnet different faculties are utilized making a genuine inclination and experience, Until the tinkling base has been secured, The juice was smelling as well. We see the various stages blackberries experience. We are recounted them once they are in their prime, when they are overall quite ready, For an entire week the blackberries would mature. We are told how fine the blackberries are yet once we arrive at the end stages we get an inclination that something desperate will occur. Everything appeared to be turning out badly when they stated, The juice was smelling as well and The sweet substance would go bad. This is the point at which the blackberries are wrecked by the growth since they are of the byre. Taking everything into account both of these sonnets are of memory of the creators beloved recollections. Wordsworth portrays his verse as Emotion remembered in serenity as a more seasoned man he recalls his excursion as a little youngster. Seamus Heany then again has an alternate standpoint of his life now than when he was as a kid. He was baffled and his human feelings truly customizes the sonnet towards the perusers. As I would like to think I feel that Seamus Heanys Blackberry Picking was significantly more persuading than William Wordsworths Nutting in light of the fact that Seamus Heany utilizes various faculties which causes the sonnet to appear to be all the more reality and considerably more wonderful to recount.

Using the Sims to Facilitate Writing

Using the Sims to Facilitate Writing I confess: Im a huge fan of the computer game, The Sims. Ive played it since the first iteration and have spent an embarrassing amount of money and time on the game. It used to be a guilty pleasure until I discovered that I could use it to further my writing. I could play and work at the same time! (Well, sort of.) The Sims lets me quickly create characters and let them live through situations (well, most of the time they live, sometimes they die) that would take me weeks of outlining to accomplish. I can experiment with various personality traits. I can give them jobs (they can even be writers), let them run their own business, keep them unemployed, or get them fired or promoted at work. They can be criminals or good guys. I can make them rich, or keep them poor. I can make them happy or mad. I can put them in relationships with other Sims (both hetero or homosexual), leave them unattached, or I can make their relationships go bust. They can even have affairs. I can give them pets or kids. Heck, in the latest iteration of the game I can even experiment with zombies, vampires, and witches and even send my Sims into the future or off to college. All of this is fodder for my creativity and stories. More than once Ive created a character and let them go about their business with very little assistance from me, just to see what theyd do. Ive taken notes and used their actions and reactions in my work. If things get completely out of control, I can just exit the game without saving and go back to a time when things were better. Thats hard to do after youve spent a hundred pages going down the wrong path in a novel. Even better, I can save a pristine version of my character and use him or her over and over again in new games to create new stories. I can then pick the story I like best and write about it. Thats a lot easier than working through four or five stories on paper. The Sims is a great way to spark my creativity when its at a low ebb. Sure, I still sit down with paper and pencil and sketch out characters and novel ideas. There are some things a computer game can never address, after all. But it is fun and different and it goes beyond just superficial details like looks and jobs. For example, I can create characters that are made for another character, or I can create characters that I know are going to antagonize or even hurt other characters. (These can later become supporting characters in a novel.) I can reform bad characters, or make good characters go bad. And then I can sit back and see what happens without having to slog through pages and pages only to discover that it wasnt such a great idea after all. Ive even taken some of my characters and their stories and posted them to the online Sims community and let other Simmers give their input as to what the character should do next. Its amazing what other people think of and getting their input expands my work even further. I can also take characters that others have created and add them to my game, creating even more mayhem. In a way, its a form of fan fiction that spills over into real the novels and stories that Im working on. Even if you dont use it for your serious writing, The Sims can be a big help during NaNoWriMo (National Novel Writing Month) if you participate. When you get stuck, just boot up the game and play for a while (but not too long or youll waste too much time). Youll quickly have lots of fodder for your story that will push you toward that 50,000-word goal. If The Sims isnt your thing, or if you need more of a fantasy element for your character creation, there are other options. There are plenty of MMORPGs that allow you to create your own characters and situations, or you can try traditional paper and pencil role-playing games like Dungeons and Dragons or Pathfinder. Okay, so The Sims is never going to qualify for a tax deduction as a business related expense. But it has helped my creativity and given me a chance to explore new characters and situations while having some fun in the process. I just have to be careful not to spend too much time with the game because then it just becomes a tool for procrastination. (Photo courtesy of Eurritimia)

Linguistic Theories Essay - 1626 Words

In the past, the study of grammar has been investigated for centuries, it was also significantly role in language teaching and learning. The reasons for teaching and learning are different in each period. In some eras, a major aim of teaching and learning was making learners to be able to communicate. In others, it was essentially taught for the purposes of reading and writing. For these reasons, the studies of two linguistic theories, the traditional grammar and the structuralism were created. They can be viewed differences by views on language, language learning and teaching as well as strengths and weaknesses as follows. Traditional grammar is one of the most significant grammar teaching, this kind of grammar was influenced by the†¦show more content†¦Traditional grammar was dissatisfied by the early modern linguists by reason of its inconsistency. Analyzing feature of language as parts of speech cannot clarify by their meaning. For example, in a sentence He runs home. Not only home is the name of a place, but it also modifies runs. Confusion occurs when the two classification of noun and adverb overlap. Hence, structural linguistics were constructed. It analyzes language by dividing a sentence into the smallest part, called immediate constituents (IC analysis) or slot and filler. This process analyzes the sentence in paradigmatic way. In order to find the beginning of structuralism, this kind of grammar came from the work of Ferdinand de Saussure. He was the first linguist who perceived that each language should be analyzed its own structure. The early modern linguists observed that linguistics ought to be an empirical science. It can be proved not from sentiment or attitude. For instance, it might be judge from score or performance. Due to the notion of structural linguistics all of languages have different structure and system. They observed that language is unique. Then, contrastive analysis was explored to this opinion. Anyway, analyzing lan guage ought to be examined spoken language rather than written language. They explained that we should investigate the actually use of language which was closed andShow MoreRelatedThe, And Corpus Linguistics Theories And Gender Studies1798 Words   |  8 PagesBased on the CDA and corpus linguistics theories and gender studies, this study conducts an analysis of how the descriptions and representations of rape incidents and the offenders and victims in the discourse of rape cases have influence in the determination of rape cases in terms of the court appeal decision. In particular, this study focuses on the discourse of appeal decisions on rape cases â€Å"on processes of education, surveillance, control and discipline of social and sexual gender behaviors†Read MoreSaussure And Saussure s Linguistic Theory Essay1751 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction In the history of linguistics, the Swiss Linguist and Semiotician, Ferdinand de Saussure (26 November 1857 – 22 February 1913) (â€Å"Ferdinand de Saussure†, 2016, para.1), and the American Linguist, Philosopher and Politician, Noam Chomsky (7 December 1928–) (â€Å"Noam Chomsky†, 2016, para.1) have had a great influence on methodology of linguistics. Saussure’s linguistic theory has influenced modern linguists and their theories to the extent that positioned them by reference to Saussure: theyRead MoreThe Opposing Theory Of Halliday s Systemic Functional Linguistics1744 Words   |  7 PagesThe opposing theory of Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics is Chomsky’s Innate Language Theory. Chomsky describes his theory as language unfolding through natural cognitive ability (Torr, 2015). Instead of the idea of learning language from social interactions and other people, language is something already in the mind that is unlocked (Gr ammar before meaning, nativist’s perspective). This innate ability is called â€Å"Language Acquisition Device (LAD)† (Chomsky 1987, Cited in Harris, 2009, ppRead MoreLanguage Acquisition Theories : Behaviorism, Linguistic Nativism, Social Interactionism, And Neurobiological Perspective1580 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Within the field of education, according to Christie and Enz (2011), there are four different language acquisition theories: behaviorism, linguistic nativism, social interactionism, and the neurobiological perspective. According to Christie and Enz (2011), behaviorist insinuates that nurturing, which is the way a child is taught or sculpted by parents and the surroundings, plays a principal position in children’s language advancement. The nativist perspective is the opposite of theRead MoreReflections of Saussures Theory of Linguistics585 Words   |  2 PagesReflections of Saussures Theory of Linguistics Ferdinand de Saussure is a linguist from the 19th century whose ideas, writing and influence are still felt today in many areas of the social sciences. He is most well known for his piece (published by his students) Course in General Linguistics published after his death in 1916. Saussures theories were bold, innovative, and inspirational to many philosophers, linguistics, and thinkers around the world. This paper will briefly reflect upon someRead MoreThe Effects Of Linguistic Effects On The Developmental Bases Of Theory Of Brain1288 Words   |  6 PagesResearchers Kobayashi, Glover and Temple were interested in studying the linguistic effects on the developmental bases of Theory of Mind (ToM). Their main goal was to uncover both the language dependent and independent neural bases that are important for ToM development. To do this, hemodynamic responses were recorded with the fMRI while the bilingual (Japanese and English speaking) participants of two different age groups (early bilingual children and late bilingual adults) preformed various falseRead MoreLinguistic Nativism: There’s Something Between the Ears Language is something that humans use and1300 Words   |  6 PagesLinguistic Nativism: There’s Something Between the Ears Language is something that humans use and encounter every day. Whether it be writing a paper, reading an email, talking to your best friend on the phone, or asking someone for directions, the use of language is broad and heavily intertwined with experiencing the world in the human condition. But the question of how humans come from being silent babies to speaking children is still unanswered. Linguistic nativism is one theory that addressesRead MoreA Second Or Foreign Language Learner Needs For Gain Knowledge1703 Words   |  7 Pages2.0 Introduction A second or foreign language learner needs to gain knowledge in and about the target language. In order to do that , one needs to know how to build morphemes into words and words into sentences (linguistic or grammatical competence). Yet, this knowledge is not the end of learning a language. While grammatical competence may be the essence of learning a new language; on its own, it is not enough. A learner also needs to know how to use that knowledge appropriately in a social contextRead MoreChomsky s Theory Of Human Language1362 Words   |  6 Pageslanguage, adopting a rationalistic influence, proposing his Cognitive Development Theory, and including essentialist aspects in his philosophy, Chomsky gives linguistics a respectable place in the greater sphere of epistemology. Noam Chomsky creates a narrow scope of linguistics, reducing the focus of its study. Chomsky believes studying the meaning, reference, and use of language should be excluded from the field of linguistics. He insists the study must be focused toward the capacity of humans to acquireRead MoreThe Behaviorist Theory of Learning1081 Words   |  4 PagesThe cornerstone of the theory of learning underlying Situational language teaching is a type of behaviorist habit-learning theory. It addresses the primacy of the processes rather than the conditions of learning. As pointed out by Overton (2013), the behaviorist theory of learning is rooted in the principle of habit formation. Mistakes are prohibited so as to escape bad habit formation. In line with the character of behaviorism, the teacher is supposed to present the language orally rather than in

How Do We Manage Groups And Teams - 1335 Words

There are various ways to manage groups and teams in our society, workplace, families or whether it is everywhere in the world. One way to manage a group is to have a vision of what you are working with. Teamwork is one of the most important a competent an individual could be committed to. When working in groups you have to be dependable to do the job and committed to do your best. There is a saying that says, â€Å"There is no I’s in team†, it all about working together. Being independent a person is responsible for his/or her own work area and that is alright, but not a good thing to accomplish in a work ethic surrounding. There is an interdependent work group which everyone relies on each member to get his or her job done. It is good†¦show more content†¦(Using six leadership styles for effective team performance, 2016). As a leader over cheerleader squad, you may have young ladies from Mexico or any other foreign country. One of the hardest things i s learning the languages from each other’s country. So the young ladies learn the cheer and work together as a group, not just a few girls learning. Working together this is teams think style. Then the squad goes to the football game and cheers in front of all the people this is a group think style. Some companies have different kinds of leadership styles in their workplace. A Laissez-Faire leader is a person who has high experience and has to train employee under his supervision, this leader fails to provide information or ideas to the ones under his supervision which leads to poor production in the company. Autocratic leadership style is one make decisions on their own and do not wants inputs from others. This style of leadership requires close working relationship with their employees. Transactional leadership style rewardsShow MoreRelatedHow to Become a Great Leader1510 Words   |  7 Pagesand Lineback explained their views / ideas on how they believe a manager can become a great boss using the 3 main imperatives on becoming a great boss; manage yourself, manage your network and manage your team. The research highlighted below suggests most companies have managers which would fall into different levels of competencies. I would contend with this article and agree with the points outlined. Capabilities of an organisation’s management team Great Capable Mediocre Poor Awful Read MoreSummarize Different Tools and Techniques Project Managers Can Use to Help Them Manage Project Teams. What Can They Do to Manage Virtual Team Members?936 Words   |  4 PagesSystems Project Management Week 4 Summarize different tools and techniques project managers can use to help them manage project teams. What can they do to manage virtual team members? Answer: For a while companies and individuals have stated that people are our biggest assets of an organization (Schwalbe, 2013). And therefore by extension so are the teams on our projects. However effective team and resource management is probably the most challenging task for most project managers. Many project managersRead MoreChoosing Your Battles1341 Words   |  6 Pagesconditions, we can see the conflict among people, groups, organizations, and nations. World War I and II are best examples. Many organizations see the conflict as wasting of time and money, and should be avoid it. On the other hand, other organizations translate the conflict as important factor to great constrictive and high performance teams, by transforming the differences to functional conflict. There are many ways to manage the conflict between team members, according to Kinne (2000), we can ensureRead MoreAdvantages And Disadvantages Of Group Diversity1453 Words   |  6 Pagessuch, and all you have to do is walk down the street to see the meaning of this concept right in front of you. The main reason for this has been because of immigration over many years. The environment in American society, whether it is in the workforce, schools, churches, or anywhere you go, can be said to be unique and made up of the characteristics of a given group that are unlike any other. Our country is highly complex, and the diversity amongst all the different groups of people can create aRead MoreOrganization Is An Entity That Has Internal Environment757 Words   |  4 Pagesincrease the number of patients we need to handle o Reduce the cost: DRG, Bundled payments†¦ o Increase quality: o Eliminate healthcare disparities These changes in indirect environment led healthcare organization to change their internal environments to adapt to these major changes. When we look at organizational change impact we look at three levels individuals groups and teams and the organization as a whole In part one of this series, we discussed how individuals respond to changeRead MoreOrganizational Effectiveness1507 Words   |  7 Pagestask, team and individual. It delivered the idea that the content leaders or managers should have ability to obligate all three main aspects of the Action-Centered Leadership model. The accentuation on each circle can be various and depends much on the given situation (Adair, 1973). This essay critically discuses and analyzes several number of events relating team performance during camp at Fairthorne Manor within the framework of John Adair diagram and illustrates the development of team membersRead More4 MAT Review Wheelan1339 Words   |  6 PagesCitation) Creating Effective Teams: A Guide for Members and Leaders Liberty University Student Date Professor Abstract Wheelan (2013) identifies the four stages of team development and provides detailed explanation of how a group transforms itself from a stage one group of uncertainty into a successful, highly productive stage four team. This requires work and a thorough understanding of the many internal/external influences that can occur during each stage. A team member or leader who is wellRead MoreThe Myers Briggs Type Indicator996 Words   |  4 Pagesunderstandable and useful in people’s lives. The essence of the theory is most people do have consistent behavioral patterns† (The Myers Briggs Foundation, 2015). The theory was introduced in the 1920’s by Carl G. Jung and the MBTI tool was developed in the 1940’s by Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother Katharine Briggs. In the first phase, our team was to take the MBTI assessment. Based on our findings, our group presents essentially an almost perfect match of the opposites, an evenly mix of fourRead MoreDifference Between Management And Leadership1738 Words   |  7 Pages Then progressing onto a style of management and leadership, discussing the impact it can have on the staff team, parents and other stakeholders. Management style and leadership style. Managers and leaders are very similar as they both lead staff teams by motivation but they do this in different ways. Managers have more authority with the team and plan, organise and co-ordinate their team to most productivity. A leader has â€Å"the ability of a superior to influence the behaviour of subordinates and

Should Animal Testing Be Banned - 1665 Words

Testing Cosmetics on Animals Companies around the world use animals to test cosmetics. Animals, such as rabbits, guinea pigs, hamsters, rats, and mice, are used to test the effects of chemicals on the eyes and skin. While animal testing is not mandatory, many companies use it. About Cosmetics Animal Testing by the Humane Society International talks about the different options companies have that do not require the cruel use and eventual death of animals. The article also talks about the overall reasoning behind animal testing and why companies choose to use animal testing. Why The US Won t Ban Cosmetics Animal Testing Anytime Soon by Cheryl Wischhover talks about why the United States still allows animal testing when there are many alternative options available. Today, companies are more aware of their public image and how cosmetic animal testing can affect how the public views them. Companies are looking for alternative ways to test the effects of chemicals that do not require the use of animals. â€Å"About Cosmetics Animal Testing† is an article written by the Humane Society International. In the article, they cover the reasons behind animal testing and why companies still use animal testing even though cruelty-free methods have been developed. Each year, 100,000-200,000 animals die around the world for cosmetic research. During these tests, â€Å"chemicals are rubbed onto the shaved skin or dripped into the eyes of rabbits; repeated oral force feeding studies lasting weeksShow MoreRelatedShould Animal Testing Be Banned?844 Words   |  3 PagesShould animal testing be banned? Nowadays, a lot of animals has been tested on a range of experiments over the world. You could be supporting animal teasing cruelty without knowing it. Have you ever check if there’s animal testing on the cosmetics before you buy it? Today, a lot of cosmetics has been testing on helpless animals and there are about 1.4 million animals die each year from animal testing ( CatalanoJ, 1994). Most of the experiments that are completed in the laboratories are very cruelRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Banned880 Words   |  4 Pagesdepending on animals testing. Therefore, if people talk about laboratories, they should remember animal experiments. Those animals have the right to live, according to people who dislike the idea of doing testing on animals; the other opinion, supports the idea of animal testing as the important part of the source of what has reached medicine of the results and solutions for diseases prevalent in every time and place. Each year huge numbers of animals a re sacrificed for the science all these animals, whetherRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Banned776 Words   |  4 PagesAnimal Testing Should be Banned  ¨Over 100 million animals are burned, crippled, poisioned and abused in US labs every year ¨ ( ¨11 Facts About Animal Testing ¨). Imagine if that was someones animal getting tortured in labs just to test things such as beauty products and perfume. Animal testing was first suggested when,  ¨Charles Darwin evolutionary theory in the mid 1850s also served to suggest that animals could serve as effective models to facilitate biological understanding in humans ¨ (Murnaghan)Read MoreAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned940 Words   |  4 Pages1). Over 100 million animals are burned, crippled, poisoned, and abused in US labs every year. 2). 92% of experimental drugs that are safe and effective in animals fail in human clinical trials. (DoSomething â€Å"11 Facts About Animal Testing†). There are currently no laws combating the testing of cosmetics on animals, but the practice is harmful and must be ended. As evidenced by the statistics above, millions of animals are tortured and murdered in the United States every year for virtually no reasonRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned1572 Words   |  7 PagesAnimal Testing Every year, over two hundred million innocent animals are injured or killed in scientific experiments across the world. Of those animals, between seventeen and twenty million are used in the United States alone. It is said that an animal dies in a laboratory every three seconds (Animal Testing 101). Those in favor of animal experimentation say they are taking animals’ lives to save humans. It is not necessary to subject animals to torturous conditions or painful experiments in theRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned1581 Words   |  7 PagesAnimal testing is being used by different organizations all over the world to prevent specific diseases, especially cancer. Americans see animal testing having a harmful effect but it is one of the main reasons why society has most cures for some illnesses. This topic is important because people need to know what goes on during animal testing and why it is very beneficial. Animal testing needs to be used to find all cures. Some ani mals such as chimps/ monkeys have 90% of the same DNA humans haveRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned1721 Words   |  7 Pages † Today, more animals are being used in experiments than ever before: around 100 million in the United States alone† (3). Animal testing is now an international issue, and it is becoming a major story. Currently, animals are often used in medical testing, make-up testing, and other consumer product testing. Animals used in such product testing are often abused and suffer from serious side-effects. Animal testing can be painful for the animals, testing results are usually not even useable forRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Banned1364 Words   |  6 Pagesbenefit. Using animals for these experimentations usually does not come to mind. Animals are often abused, suffer, and even die during laboratory testing for the benefits of people to make sure medications, household products, newest procedures, and cosmetics are safe and effective for human use. Humans have benefited from animal testing for years while these animals suffer consequences with no positive outcomes for themselves. Even if a product or procedure is deemed successful, these animals are frequentlyRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Banned Essay1632 Words   |  7 Pages Animal Testing Should Be Banned Throughout the decades, animals have been used in medical research to test the safety of cosmetics including makeup, hair products, soaps, perfume, and countless of other products. Animals have also been used to test antibiotics and other medicines to eliminate any potential risks that they could cause to humans. The number of animals worldwide that are used in laboratory experiments yearly exceeds 115 million animals. Unfortunately, only a small percentage ofRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Banned2391 Words   |  10 Pageseasier for consumers. These are only mild examples of the animal testing that goes on every single day around the world, and right here in the United States of America. Animals are kept in lonely, cold, dirty kennels, and some never see the light of day. They are tested on, force fed, and often mistreated even when the tests are over. Every day innocent animals are shocked, injected, poisoned, restrained, and endure excruciating pain testing chemicals in most, i f not all, of the products everyday Americans

Current Perspectives on Combination Therapy

Question: Discuss about the Current Perspectives on Combination Therapy. Answer: Introduction: Goal of antihypertensive therapy should eliminate blood pressure rise without adversely affecting quality of life. Maintenance of normal blood pressure (BP) is central to the homeostasis. BP is controlled by different factors like renal sodium excretion, fluid volume in the body and cardiac performance. Hence, different mechanisms are responsible for rise in blood pressure. Drugs acting on the single target would not be able to act on multiple targets. In such case, there would be requirement of drugs acting on multiple targets. Drugs used for hypertension should control intravascular volume, cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance. Use of combination therapy for hypertension as a first line therapy is more helpful in achieving effective blood pressure control as compared to the single drug treatment1. In case, if two physiologic mechanisms are disrupted, there would be possibility of neutralizing counter regulatory mechanisms. This would result in more reduction in the blood pressure. Hence, diuretic drugs acting on the rennin angiotensisn system should be combined with the angiotensin-converting-enzyme (ACE) inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs). Diauretics can also be given in combination with -blockers, as it inhibits release of rennin. Dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers (CCBs) used to increase level of circulating catecholamines which leads to the stimulation of renin-angiotensin system. Hence, these CCBs can be combined with ACE inhibitors. ACE inhibitors and beta blockers act on the same target like renin-angiotensin system. Hence, combining these two drugs would not be beneficial2. Effective control of hypertension is required in the hypertensive patients especially in patients with co morbidity like diabetes mellitus. In such patients more aggressive blood pressure control is very much required. It is evident that in most of the patients control of blood pressure using monotherapy is as difficult task. Achieving blood pressure in 140/90 mmHg range in hypertensive patients and 130/80 mmHg range in diabetes is not possible in most of the patients. Effective control of blood pressure is required for the reducing the cardiovascular complications3,4. In a study it was proved that 2 mm Hg reduction in blood pressure can reduce stroke and transient ischemic attacks by 15 % and coronary artery disease by 6 5%. Monotherapy for hypertension is beneficial in most of the patients, however more than 50 % patients require combination therapy for effective control of blood pressure. It is recommended that combination therapy is required in patients with systolic blood pres sure (SBP) 20 mm Hg above goal and/or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) above 10 mm Hg. Many factors are responsible for the occurrence of hypertension. In such scenario, control of blood pressure using single drug acting on one target is unrealistic. Drugs used in the combination therapy can act on different targets and can act as complimentary to each other to control blood pressure. Methodology required for the preparation of combination therapy requires two or more drugs to be combined together. Methodology and Results: In this review studies of only randomized clinical trials are considered. Studies were incorporated with patients comprising of essential hypertension and patients with secondary hypertension were excluded from the study. Studies with patients above 18 years were considered for this review. All the studies considered in this review comprised of one arm with combination of two or more antihypertensive drugs and another arm was antihypertensive monotherapy. Results were considered in terms of efficacy of combination therapy in controlling blood pressure and rapidity of controlling blood pressure. Other outcome measures considered were adherence to the combination therapy, occurrence of morbidities and adverse events. Articles were searched form the databases like Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (Central), MEDLINE, and EMBASE. Data was extracted from the selected articles and this data comprised of study design, population characteristic, components of combination therapy , comparator drugs and outcomes of the clinical trial. Articles with bias towards participants blinding, selection bias, data collection and data analysis were not considered for this review. Studies incorporated in this review were group design, randomized trial, controlled trial and cross over design. Pecherina et al., (2014). conducted a randomized study with parallel groups. In this 124 participants were incorporated with 60 % male and 40 % female. Nebivolol and Amlodipine were given in combination with 2.5/2.5 and 5/5 ratio. 24 hours ambulatory blood pressure monitoring was performed for three months. Along with this heart rate, compliance and quality of life were also evaluated. It was observed that these drug combinations produced effective blood pressure control as compared to the individual drugs8. McLay et al., (2000) conducted double blind, placebo controlled randomized multicentre study. In this study 26 participants were incorporated. Felodipine and Metoprolol each at 50mg were administered to the participants. Mean BP prior to initiation of the study were 172 15/ 102 6 mmHg. In this study, 26 hours ambulatory blood pressure monitoring was performed for 12 weeks. Compliance and adverse events were also monitored in the study. Felodipine and Metoprolol combination effectively reduced blood pressure in these participants9. In Hypertension Optimal Trial (HOT), 33 % patients achieved their target BP using monotherapy and 45 % patients achieved their target BP using combination of two drugs. In Strategies in Treatment of Hypertension (STRATHE) study it was observed that combination of -blocker and ACE inhibitor and CCB exhibited more effect as compared to the administration of the same drugs sequentially. This study was conducted for 9 months and it was observed that 62 % patients in the combination therapy and 49 % in the sequential monotherapy exhibited attainment of target BP. Thiazide-diuretics and -blockers were studied in different studies like STOP, MRC, ALLHAT. These combination drugs are well-known drugs for uncomplicated hypertension. Combination of thiazide-diuretics are ACE-inhibitors are more useful in patients with hypertension with congestive heart failure. This combination therapy is very potent therapy and rapid reduction in the hypertension should be monitored in this therapy. Diuretics and AT (angiotensin) 1-blockers (ARB) would be more useful in hypertension with left ventricular hypertrophy as compared to the -blockers and diuretics combination11. Di uretics and calcium antagonist (dihydropyridines) are helpful in treating isolated systolic hypertension (ISH) patients. -blockers and ACE-inhibitors in combination can be used in hypertensive patients post myocardial infarction and in patients with coronary heart disease chromic heart failure. Calcium antagonists (dihydropyridine-type) and -blockers combination drugs are helpful in patients with coronary artery disease. Calcium antagonists and ACE-inhibitors combination drugs are helpful hypertensive patients with nephropathy, coronary artery disease and atherosclerosis. Efficacy and safety of these combinations were established in the ELSA, PREVENT, SECURE and INSIGHT studies. ACE-inhibitors and AT1-blockers are useful in hypertensive patients with diabetic nephropathy and glomerulonephritis. These drugs in combination reduced proteinuria more as compared to the individual drugs12. Advantages : Combination of drugs can reduce doses of all the drugs in the combination. This would be helpful in reducing adverse effects of drugs in combination. It can improve compliance by administering drugs once a day. Synergistic effect can be achieved using combination therapy. These combination therapies are helpful in achieving normal blood pressure, even in patients with difficulty in controlling blood pressure. Hence, combination therapy can be useful in all the subgroups of hypertension patients. As faster blood pressure can be controlled in patients using combination therapy, patients would be willing to stick to the combination therapy for long term use. Response rate is much higher in combination therapy (75%-95%) as compared to the monotherapy (30%-50%). Convenience of consumption is the most prominent advantage of single pill combination therapy6. Disadvantages : Patients consuming combination therapy reported more dizziness as compared to the patients treated with monotherapy. There is possibility of side effects due to side effects due to drug interactions in combination therapy. Combination therapy may increase cost for the patient7. Discussion: In combination therapy, drugs should be selected based on the efficacy of the combination in reducing blood pressure and treating cardiovascular complications like stroke, myocardial infraction and heart failure. However, more emphasis should be given on reducing blood pressure because reduction in blood pressure is the primary determinant of reducing cardiovascular complications. These combination therapies are proved to be useful in reducing blood pressure in patients with diabetes, renal disease and cardiovascular disease13. Elevation in the blood pressure occurs due to multiple factors. Hence, treating blood pressure with monotherapy, may evoke compensatory response and there would be rise in blood pressure due to other mechanism. In such case, combination of drugs acting on different targets of hypertension would be more beneficial in treating hypertension. Keeping this thing in mind, different combinations are developed for treating hypertension. These combinations include reni n angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS) inhibitor and diuretic, RAAS inhibitor and CCB, renin inhibitor and ARBS, CCBs and diuretics, b-blockers + diuretics, thiazide diuretics and potassium-sparing diuretics, and CCBs and -blockers. In clinical trials it was observed that patients receiving combination exhibited more effect as compared to the administration of same drugs sequentially. On an average, 75 % of patients require combination therapy for achieving target BP. Selection of combination drug and dose of drugs is very important in developing combination therapy because there may be individual differences for response of combination therapy. In hypertensive patients, insufficient BP control itself is risk factor for diabetes. In combination therapy, more emphasis should be given to drugs which are more effective in long term as compared to the short term effects. This would be helpful in reducing long term cardiovascular effects. Combination drugs should act either on different target or it should block counter regulatory mechanism15. In clinical trials it was observed that dose of drugs in monotherapy are approximately 5 times more as compared to the dose of drugs in combination. Pharmcokinetic properties of drugs in combination should be compatible to each other. In combination therapy, target blood pressure should be reached within 4 6 months of the initia tion of the treatment. It would be helpful in maintaining this BP level for long duration irrespective of the follow-up treatment. In recent times, it is recommended that 2 drugs combination should be used if there is BP more than 160/100 mm Hg in patients with uncomplicated hypertension and 150/90 mm Hg in patients with diabetes and other cardiovascular complications. Monotherapy is first choice for first stage hypertension, however recently recommendation was given for combination therapy in stage 1 hypertensive patients. Adverse effect can be problem in both monotherapy and combination therapy. In monotherapy, adverse effect may be due high doses of drugs as compared to the combination therapy. However, in combination therapy adverse effect can be due to drug interactions. Developments of a combination require knowledge of full pharmacology of both the drugs in the combination. There should be rationale for development of combination therapy. Conclusion: Combination therapy for hypertension is widely accepted. Few patients can be effectively treated for hypertension with the combination therapy only. Combination therapy should be efficacious, with high response rate, work in all the subgroups of hypertensive patients, no metabolic side effects and affordable to patients. These combinations comprises of 2 or 3 drugs in a single pill. Antihypertensive drugs with 2 drugs are well established, however enough clinical evidence is not available for combination of 3 drugs. Selection of the drugs for antihypertensive combination therapy is mainly depends on the hemodynamic and metabolic criteria. Combination drugs should be used in a single pill rather than sequential administration. Advantages of combination therapy indicates that characteristics of combination therapy are similar to the ideal drug. In summary, patients should use combination therapy for achieving target BP. References: Coleman TG, Hall JE. Systemic Hemodynamics and Regional Blood Flow Regulation. In: Izzo JL Jr, Black HR, Sica DA, eds. Hypertension Primer. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins; 2008. Kettani FZ, Dragomir A, Cote R, Roy L, Berard A, Blais L, et al. Impact of a better adherence to antihypertensive agents on cerebrovascular disease for primary prevention. Stroke; a journal of cerebral circulation. 2009; 40(1):21320. American Diabetes Association: Standards of medical care in diabetes. Diabetes Care 2010, 33(Suppl 1):11-61. Ong KL, Cheung BM, Man YB, Lau CP, Lam KS: Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension among United States adults 1999-2004. Hypertension 2007, 49:69-75. Alan H. Gradman, Jan N. Basile, Barry L. Carter, George L. Bakris. Combination Therapy in Hypertension. Journal Of Clinical Hypertension. 2010;4:4250 Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, Redon J, Zanchetti A, Bohm M, et al. ESH/ESC Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Journal of hypertension. 2013; 31(7):1281357. Scotti L, Baio G, Merlino L, Cesana G, Mancia G, Corrao G. Cost-effectiveness of enhancing adherence to therapy with blood pressure-lowering drugs in the setting of primary cardiovascular prevention. Value in health: the journal of the International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research. 2013; 16(2):31824. Pecherina TB, Vedernikova AG, Evdokimov DO, Klimenkova AV, Barbarash OL. Postregistration study of comparative assessment efficacy of the use of fixed combination of nebivolol and amlodipine for the treatment of patients with moderate and high degree of arterial hypertension. Kardiologiia. 2014; 54(6):218. McLay JS, MacDonald TM, Hosie J, Elliott HL. The pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profiles of controlled-release formulations of felodipine and metoprolol in free and fixed combinations in elderly hypertensive patients. European journal of clinical pharmacology. 2000; 56(8):[52935 pp.]. Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG, et al. Effects of intensive blood-pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: principal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomized trial. Lancet. 1998;351:17551762. Mallat SG, Tanios BY, Itani HS, Lotfi T, Akl EA. Free versus Fixed Combination Antihypertensive Therapy for Essential Arterial Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS One. 2016 22;11(8):e0161285. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161285. eCollection 2016. Mallat SG, Itani HS, Tanios BY. Current perspectives on combination therapy in the management of hypertension. Integrated blood pressure control. 2013; 6:6978. James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, Cushman WC, Dennison-Himmelfarb C, Handler J, et al. Evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014; 311(5):50720. Weber MA, Schiffrin EL, White WB, Mann S, Lindholm LH, Kenerson JG, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of hypertension in the community: a statement by the American Society of Hypertension and the International Society of Hypertension. Journal of clinical hypertension. 2014; 16(1):1426. Nowak E, Happe A, Bouget J, Paillard F, Vigneau C, Scarabin PY, et al. Safety of Fixed Dose of Antihypertensive Drug Combinations Compared to (Single Pill) Free-Combinations: A Nested Matched Case-Control Analysis. Medicine. 2015; 94(49):e2229. Sherrill B, Halpern M, Khan S, Zhang J, Panjabi S. Single-pill vs free-equivalent combination therapies for hypertension: a meta-analysis of health care costs and adherence. Journal of clinical hypertension . 2011; 13(12):898909.

Racial or ethnical discrimination

Even though some people state that racial or ethnical discrimination and prejudice are issues of the past, there is still double standard in the US society. Ethnic minorities have to face various issues related to prejudice or discrimination. It is possible to consider the concepts of discrimination and prejudice from different theoretical perspectives.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Racial or ethnical discrimination specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the first place, these concepts can be considered in term of the conflict theory. According to the conflict theory, people struggle for resources and the society develops in terms of this struggle. Thus, European Americans tend to think that ethnic minorities can take certain jobs away. This prejudice exists in the society especially when it comes to Asian Americans. There is a prejudice that Asian immigrants come and occupy posts which could be taken by Americans (Cheng Yang 290). At the same time, minorities tend to stress that whites control all spheres of the US society. People of color argue that whites have taken all major positions in the society and such concepts as ‘double-standard’ and ‘glass ceiling’ are common for minorities. Such events as the case of Rodney King prove that the conflict exists (Blauner 272). Notably, some people who find themselves in uncertain position (e.g. experience financial constraints) tend to share discriminative practices. However, those who are well-off are not afraid of competition and strive for discrimination-free society. As far as psychological perspective, prejudice can be explained by the theory of stereotyping. Thus, people tend to stereotype. This is a psychological peculiarity of the human being. If an individual sees several (or even one) German who likes beer very much, he/she develops a stereotype concerning Germans’ attitude towards this beverage. Likewis e, there are various examples of prejudice. African-Americans are often thought to work as low-paid employees or even to be gangsters. Philippine females are often believed to work as maids. At present, young people are taught to be free from stereotypes though people are still vulnerable. It is also possible to see discrimination and prejudice from symbolic interactionist perspective. According to this theory, minority groups cannot see themselves as a part of a larger group if they are not seen as similar by the majority group. Admittedly, ethnicity is what makes people different in terms of their skin color, mindsets, traditions, etc. (Blauner 279).Advertising Looking for essay on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Different groups of people remain somewhat hostile to others, as this is a part of the human perception. Others are seen as different and hostile. Discrimination as well as prejudice can be regarded as a typ e of self-defense when the majority group tries to defend itself from the influence of the ‘others’, i.e. minority groups. Therefore, it is essential to promote the concepts of equality and cooperation to make people free from the concept of ‘otherness’. In conclusion, it is possible to note that discrimination and prejudice can be considered in terms of conflict theory, theory of stereotypes and symbolic interactionist perspective. According to these sociological and psychological perspectives discrimination and prejudice are indispensible parts of the human society as it is. However, there is a way to get rid of these concepts. People should try to develop understanding that all are equal irrespective of their ethnic background. Globalization is one of the factors that can help people understand that. The differences between ethnicities become insignificant when people start thinking about more global issues like environment, diseases, natural disasters, resources distribution, etc. People should understand that cooperation (i.e. the end of discrimination and prejudice) is the way to build global society which can cope with global issues. Works Cited Blauner, Bob: â€Å"Talking Past Each Other: The Black and White Languages of Race.† Cheng, Lucie and Philip Q. Yang: â€Å"Asians: The’ Model Minority’ Deconstructed†. This essay on Racial or ethnical discrimination was written and submitted by user Lydia Bradford to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Lonesome George Was the Last Pinta Island Tortoise

Lonesome George Was the Last Pinta Island Tortoise The last known member of the Pinta Island tortoise subspecies (Chelonoidis nigra abingdonii) died on June 24, 2012. Known as Lonesome George by his keepers  at the Charles Darwin Research Station on the Galpagos Island of Santa Cruz, this giant tortoise was estimated to be 100 years old. Weighing 200 pounds and measuring 5 feet in length, George was a healthy representative of his kind, but repeated attempts to breed him with biologically similar female tortoises proved unsuccessful. Scientists at the research station plan to save tissue samples and DNA from Georges body in hopes of reproducing his genetic material in the future. For now, though, Lonesome George will be preserved via taxidermy to be displayed at the Galpagos National Park. The now-extinct Pinta Island tortoise resembled  other members of the Galapagos giant tortoise species (Chelonoidis nigra), which is the largest living species of tortoise and one of the heaviest living reptiles in the world.   Characteristics of the Pinta Island Tortoise Appearance:  Like others of its subspecies, the Pinta Island tortoise has a dark brownish-gray saddleback-shaped shell with  large, bony plates on its upper portion and thick, stumpy limbs covered in scaly skin. The Pinta Island has a long neck and toothless mouth shaped much like a beak, suitable for its vegetarian diet. Size:  Individuals of this  subspecies were known to reach 400 pounds, 6 feet in length, and 5 feet in height (with necks fully extended).   Habitat:  Like other saddleback tortoises, the Pinta Island subspecies primarily inhabited arid lowlands but likely made seasonal migrations to more moist areas at higher elevations. Its primary habitat though would be that of the Ecuadorian Pinta Island from which it gets its name.   Diet:  The Pinta Island tortoises diet consisted of vegetation, including grasses, leaves, cacti, lichens, and berries. It could go for long periods without drinking water (up to 18 months) and is thought to have stored water in its bladder and pericardium. Reproduction:  Galpagos giant tortoises reach sexual maturity between 20 and 25 years of age. During the height of mating season between February and June of each year, females travel to sandy coastlines where they dig nest holes for their eggs (saddlebacks like Pinta tortoises typically dig 4 to 5 nests a year with an average of 6 eggs each). The females retain sperm from a single copulation to fertilize all of her eggs. Depending upon temperature, incubation can span anywhere from 3 to 8 months. Like other reptiles (notably crocodiles), nest temperatures determine the sex of hatchlings (warmer nests result in more females). Hatching and emergency occur between December and April. Lifespan/;  Like other subspecies of  Galpagos giant tortoises, the Pinta Island tortoise can live up to 150 years in the wild. The oldest known tortoise was Harriet, who was approximately 175 years old when she died at an Australia Zoo in 2006. Geographic Range/;  The Pinta Island tortoise was indigenous to Ecuadors Pinta Island. All subspecies of the Galpagos giant tortoise are found only in the Galpagos Archipelago. According to a study released by Cell Press entitled Lonesome George is not alone among Galapagos tortoises, there may still be a Pinta Island turtle living among a similar subspecies on the neighboring island of Isabela.   Causes of Population Decline and Extinction of Pinta Island Tortoises   During the 19th century, whalers  and fishermen killed Pinta Island tortoises for food, driving the subspecies to the brink of extinction by the mid-1900s. After exhausting the tortoise population, seasonal seafarers introduced goats to Pinta in 1959 to ensure they would have a food source upon landing. The goat population grew to more than 40,000 during the 1960s and 1970s, decimating the islands vegetation, which was the remaining tortoises food. Pinta tortoises were originally considered extinct during this time until visitors spotted Lonesome George in 1971. George was taken into captivity the following year. Following his death in 2012, the Pinta Island tortoise is now considered to be extinct (other subspecies of Galpagos tortoise are listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN). Conservation Efforts Starting in the 1970s, varied techniques were employed to eradicate Pinta Islands goat population in order to discover the most effective method for later use on larger Galpagos islands. After almost 30 years of only moderately successful extermination attempts, an intensive program of radio-collaring and aerial hunting aided by GPS and GIS technology resulted in complete eradication of goats from Pinta. Monitoring projects have since shown that Pintas native vegetation has recovered in the absence of goats, but the vegetation requires grazing to keep the ecosystem properly balanced, so the Galpagos Conservancy launched Project Pinta, a multi-phase effort to introduce tortoises from other islands to Pinta. How You Can Help Other Giant Tortoises   Donate to the Lonesome George Memorial Fund, established by the Galpagos Conservancy to fund large-scale tortoise restoration programs in Galpagos over the next 10 years. There are also a variety of  resources for  volunteering to help endangered species  available online.

Biomedical ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Biomedical ethics - Essay Example Joe fulfills the age requirement of Medicaid’s rationing scheme because he is below age 65 and unless he did not fulfill its other fundamental requirements, the Medicaid official could have denied him benefits unfairly (Beauchamp & Childress, 2013). Dr. Adams fulfilled the requirements of the biomedical principle of beneficence when she went out of her way to attend to Joe while at the scene of the accident. She demonstrated the principle of respect for persons when she attempted to rescue Joe who was incapable of self-determination immediately after the accident. Both Dr. Adams and the emergency personnel in the ambulance demonstrated non-maleficence when they helped save Joe’s life because they did not harm him even when his condition exposed him to mistreatment and harm. Facts provide that Dr. Benson had performed substandard surgeries before Joe’s case. If indeed the Southwest Hospital knew about Benson’s quality of service, it was immoral to have allowed him to operate on Joe (Beauchamp & Childress, 2013). The motorist who cut Joe off might have been reckless. The motorist should have been cautious when driving knowing that obstructing others on the traffic could cause an accident. Recklessness implies that the actor (the other motorist) foresaw the danger that could accrue from his action but did not take precautions to remove the danger. There was an element of negligence in the way that Southwest Hospital handled Joe’s case. Negligence embodies the issues of duty, breach, causation, and damages. Given Joe’s condition after the accident, the hospital had the duty to protect and rescue his life. Assigning Dr. Benson to Joe’s operation breached the hospital’s duty to protect their patient’s (Joe’s) life and wellbeing. It is possible that Dr. Benson’s lack of care during operation is what led to Joe’s hemorrhage and hospitalization thereafter. The hospital could therefore be charged for the

Romania Risk Assessment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words - 1

Romania Risk Assessment - Assignment Example Hazards identified at the level if agency and department and also those in the process were assessed in the process of risk assessment. These hazards were categorized into four groups that included Transportation, Civil, Technological and Natural. In the second stage, entails the reflection of the total risks presented by the hazard that is identified. At this point, the group comes together to undertake the process of risk assessment in Romania. During the period of assessment, some of the two issues that are key and need to be considered are; the likelihood assessment and the potential impact examination. The criteria of the likelihood and impact are to be used as the basis for decision making. The system of classification is based on a risk assessment guide in the major management of emergency (DEHLG, 2010). In determining the types of risk that exists it is wise to show the relative lively hood of the risk occurrence against its impact The risk of flooding that is explained by the Romanian Academy Geography Institution extended the distribution site of the sites of Seveso; this provided an opportunity for these areas to be categorized as areas that are prone to Natech event. In Romania, areas that are categorized as flood risk occupy a larger surface hence increasing the probability of the occurrence of Natech with the major cause flooding. The largest area of the site of Seveso that could be affected by the floods is located in the central and western part of Romania. Sites of Seveso can also be found in Mures, Hunedoara and Alba counties. However, other counties in Romania which do not have the Seveso Sites and have a high risk of being affected by the floods are majorly at the west and they include Olt-South, Caransebes-South-West, Giurgiu, and Caras (European Environment Agency, 2010). The year 2003 was exceptional when view from a climatic point. Most of the part of

Recruitment Selection Process | Case Study

Recruitment Selection Process | Case Study How does the organization approach the nature and composition of the workforce? For example, does it emphasize low cost or high performance, and internal or external labour markets? The company I am employed with is a furniture company which tends to do most of the hiring based on the high performance and uses internal and external labour markets. Vacancies arise in our company as employees leave the company such as when they retire or resign or get promoted to other positions within our company. Our company ensures that we have developed an adequate plan to replace employees when needed. We decide what requirements we needs such as personnel requirements which will be supplied by either outside candidates or inside candidates. This decision is all based on need and if we have the qualified staff to step up and replace when needed. The company makes sure to comply with all government policies. We make sure to guarantee our valuable employees have long-term employment opportunities. They do this because it would be unfortunate to lose talent to another company. We are flexible to accommodate to changes in the nature of employees and in the way they do business. T hey are adaptable and cost effective in the hiring process. Our company approaches the nature and composition of the workforce by way of looking for the best employees that will help our company grow and become improved and superior. We want a strong employee community within our company so we work hard to build the relationships with our workforce. How many positions are filled annually? How many applications are received for each vacant position? The organization consists of about 150 people which means about approximately 10 hires a year occur from internal promotions or people seeking other types of employment or from turnovers. We do try to keep our employees with us as long as we can since they are our expertise in the field. When we must make new hires we do ask that current employees take on the training of their replacements because we understand that they know the jobs as well as they can. There are approximately 80 applications received each time there is a vacant opening for hire. This is mainly so high a number of people applying because of the current recession we are all facing. A normal amount of candidates would be about 20 for each position advertised. What methods are used to recruit candidates? Recruitment at our company involves attracting the right standard of candidates to apply for job openings. We tend to advertises jobs in different ways depending on the position available. We first looks at the internal replacement plan to fill a job opening. This is a process that lists all the current employees that are looking for a move which is either at the same level or on a promotion basis. We also advertise the post internally on our intranet. If there are no suitable people in this which are developed from the replacement plan, in the process of development or apply from internally then the company needs to start to look externally. For external recruitment, we advertise opening through our website and the available job boards in the stores. Applications are to be filled out online or in the store for positions. The chosen potential candidates are invited for an interview followed by their attendance at our assessment centre for the final stage of the selection process. We will seek the most cost-effective way of attracting the right candidates. We build up our external pool of qualified candidates by advertising the job through advertising, employment agencies, executive recruiters, college recruiting, the internet, referrals and walk-ins. It can become expensive to search for candidates although this is sometimes very necessary to ensure the right types of people are able to learn about our opening. Our company strives to make it easy for candidates to find out about an available job and we have a very simple application process. By accessing our website, a candidate can find out about our local available jobs, management posts and head office positions. The website has an easy to use online application form for people to submit directly through. We always make sure to never discriminate against any individual with respect to employment because of race, color, religion, sex, national origin or age. All people are welcome to apply and be given a fair chance to go through the hiring process if they qualify each stage of the way. What is the general approach to selection (i.e., statistical, judgmental, or a combination of the two)? The general selection approach is through a combination of judgmental and statistical evaluations. Judgmental information is used in terms of that we tend to require an assorted amount of source data based from the managers personal judgments of the individual candidate. We also use the previously collected information such as resumes and application forms in our databases to make these judgment calls. We will use statistical information when we have made our judgments on who will be asked to participate in call backs for the next qualifying measures. The common selection approach we use is to find the essential key qualifications for each qualified candidates and the screening out of all the unqualified candidates. We make sure we have a list the characteristics and skills that are required for job performance. These requirements are the predictors of job performance. Selection involves choosing the most suitable people from those that have applied for an opening while at the same t ime keeping to the employment laws and regulations. Screening candidates is a very extremely important part of our selection process. The initial selection screening in our organization begins with an application form. Our manager uses these to obtain some valid background data. It is also a valuable tool to use the application form data to make predictions about the candidates future performance. For example application forms have been used in my company many times to predict the job success, job tenure and employee theft. A human resources manager will be able to tell a lot from an application form if they have trained extensively and have some experience in this field. The important thing to remember is that the personnel planning and recruiting will directly affect employee commitment. This is because commitment depends on the hiring of employees who have the potential to grow and develop. The more qualified candidates that have applied the higher chances of the selection standards are able to be. Selection at my company begins with the most effective testing and interviewing techniques available. This ensures that those selected for an interview will have the best fit with our job requirements. In the first stages of screening, our selectors will look carefully at each candidates resume. This information helps to summarize the candidates education and job history to date. A well-written and positive resume helps us to assess whether a candidate matches the individual skills need for the job specifications for the position. The company also provides a tool that can help to match individuals with careers on our website page. People interested in working for us can see where they might fit into our company before applying that way there will be less disappointment if they are not chosen for an interview. Statistical is used in terms of an individual assessment includes the knowledge, skills, and ability testing, personality assessment, work sample tests and assessment screenings . We usually try to use the predictive validation test developed specifically for the type of job and the industry in which our company operates within. The tests we choose tend to be based ones which will depend on the job we are hiring for at the time such as in the warehouse or in the office. We believe our test conditions should always be consistent. We hold the tests in areas that are reasonably quiet, private, well ventilated and well lit. We also make sure that the entire group of candidates takes the tests under the same evaluation setting. Once completed the test results are to be held in the strictest confidence. They are given only to the individuals who have a valid need for the test results. We use the tests that measure the attributes that are important for each type of job success. This choice is usually based on the experience, previous candidate search and gut instincts of the person performing the tests. We usually use more than one test in a sequence aimed at measuri ng a variety of possible predictors such as companionability, assertiveness, and mathematical ability. For legal reason we always make sure that the tests have accurate measures before they are used in evaluating a candidates potential ability to perform well on the job. The fact that similar tests may have proven successful in the same industry is not sufficient enough for us to use them unless we have done our own validation of these tests. If we are using a new test we tend to check the accuracy of it by testing it on the existing employees on the job. We then compare the candidates test scores with our current employees to confirmation the validation of these new tests. The one disadvantage is that current employees might not be representative of the new candidates. We use tests as one of a variety of the selection techniques as they are used to supplement the interviews and background checks. The process we use to select external candidates has several stages. Candidates who pass the initial screening process of the application form and resume than has the opportunity to attend our assessment screenings. The assessment screenings takes place in our store and is run by our managers. These assessment screenings help to provide consistency in the selection process. Candidates are given various exercises which include team-work activities or problem solving exercises. These involve real life examples of problems they might have to encounter at the workplace. Candidates that have been approved by the assessment screenings then have an opportunity to have an interview. Managers for the job being hired for are offered take part in the interview to make sure that the candidate fits the job requirements. Our company conducts the interview by following the layout of plan the interview, establish the rapport, question the candidate, close the interview and then review the data. Sele ction and testing of prospective employees is of great importance in my workplace. There are very good reasons why the process of selection and testing is crucial. Performance is extremely crucial to have from an employee since selecting an employee with the right level of performance should always be chosen for the job. Employees who do not have the right level of skills or who are cause difficulties or complicate matters will not be able to perform effectively. To have the most cost effective screening is important because it is expensive to recruit and hire employees. It is estimated that for an administrative assistant who earns $30,000 a year the cost of recruitment is around $12,000. This takes into consideration the total cost of the search fees; interviewing time, reference checking or using a company to search on our behalf. The cost of hiring employees could be proportionally high and this is a quite significant reason to make sure we hire the right candidates. We are always reviewing and updating our hiring process and making sure specific industry standards are reviewed on a regular basis to ensure that the selection and testing process is fair. Even if a candidate is not able to make it through the hiring process for which ever reason when we chose to not invite them to the next step or they drop out the process we always make sure to keep accurate records. We believe it is extremely important to keep accurate records of why each candidate was rejected during the hiring process. The detailed records of why each candidate was rejected will be held to assist in the research on the trends in recruitment and to evaluate the performance of our recruitment process. We also hold on to them for legal reason should the need ever arise to provide proof of our fair practices. What selection devices or methods are employed? The common selection devices and methods we use include the following: ability tests such as physical, cognitive or psychomotor, knowledge tests, structured interviews, personality tests, the methodical collection of biographical data, and work samples. We must always be evaluating the evidence regarding the degree to which the selection tools predict job performance and the substantiation they put on the validity of the selection tools. Are these selection devices or methods validated? How? The candidate selection devices and methods are usually validated or shown to be job relevant using one or more of the following types of validity. The selection devices are validated through such methods as the validity of subject, concept, or criteria. It is by these means Does the organization attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of its RS system? If so, how? Which model does it apply? After we have established the accuracy of the tests we administer the test and hire the employees based on their test scores. At a later date compare the success candidates with their test scores with their performance on the job. The recruitment and selection methods are important for finding out the shortcoming of our processes. These test scores contribute to an organizations success by improving the performance and well-being of its employees. They help to identify how behaviors and attitudes can be improved through hiring practices, training programs, and feedback systems. Our company does attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of its recruitment and selection system through the job analysis procedures. The Job analysis is illustrated as the foundation of the successful employee selection efforts and the performance management initiatives. A job analysis involves the methodical compilation of information about the specific job that was hired for. Job analysis methods are often do ne through two approaches in our workplace. The first approach being the task oriented job analysis this involves an examination of the responsibilities, obligations or experience required by the job. The second approach is the worker oriented job analysis which involves an assessment of the knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs) which are essential to successfully perform the work. Job analysis data is often amassed using a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The information gathered from a job analysis is then used to create job related selection procedures, performance evaluations and criteria or training curriculums. The other uses of the job analysis information include job evaluations for the purpose of determining compensation levels and job revamping. It is important to know the Job attitudes such as their job satisfaction, commitment, organizational citizenship and retaliation on the company. The job analyst individual may use qualitative methods such as critical occurrence disc ussions and focal point assemblys to collect data components on the workplace performances. Is the RS system integrated into the organizations strategic management system? If so, how? If not, how would you describe the relationship between the two systems? The recruitment selection process is integrated into the organizations strategic management system by To what extent does RS abide by human rights principles at each stage of the process? Be specific. At each step of the recruitment selection process human rights principles are abided by strictly because it is very important to maintain ethics and local and national legislation. We always make sure that we never exclude anyone before they have had a chance to qualify on their own merits. We are an equal opportunity employer and are open to hiring any individual for any position as long as they qualify for the position. In what other ways could the RS process be evaluated either positively or negatively? The way that the recruitment selection process can be evaluated positively is when there is leadership through the employees that have been with the company a lot longer than the newer employees this provides a means of advancement for all in the company. Happy employees are a sign that the recruitment and selection process is working. Leadership should be a process by where the elder employed employees are positively supporting, influencing and motivating the other workers. These leaders could be members in a position of power such as managers or supervisors or they can be their own fellow workers. This should lead to employees working passionately and efficiently towards achieving the workplace endeavors and purposes. The workplace leaders behave as the ones who identify the potential of a worker and try to put that into actuality. A leader can be a positive leader or a negative leader which could upset the whole of the workplace or bring it to a place of achieving goals. Workers a re performing at high standards and understanding and achieving much in the workplace. The leaders influence within an organization can be derived from two crucial sources which is that persons personal characteristics and their position or power within the given organization. These personality elements such as their knowledge base, their individual personality, their capacity to successfully work with others, and their established level of exertion. Positional power is derivative from the leaders position within our organization and the authority encouraged in their behavior. This is either directly or indirectly by the organizations controlling faction to make available either opportunities or restriction for their personal performance levels. The leaders responsibility is to use their positive influence to persuade and encourage individuals within the workplace to focus themselves regarding the achievement of the organizations objectives. There are differences that should be distinguished between leadership and management. The way that the recruitment selection process can be evaluated negatively is through counterproductive behavior within the workplace. Counterproductive actions can be seen as employee behavior that departs from the objective of our b usiness. These actions can be deliberate or accidental and result from an extensive sequence of fundamental rationales and incentives. The types of common counterproductive behavior with most observed assessments within the workplace are the following: job turnover, accidents, job performance, absenteeism, theft, violence, substance use, and sexual harassment. In light of the above issues, what recommendations would you make to improve the RS process in the organization? The recommendations that the recruitment selection process can be improved in the organization is through better testing methods that could be suited to each type of personality since not all test are accurate for each person. It would be important to make sure when hiring candidates that during the probation period that the new hires are regularly evaluated and let go if they are not reaching the company expectations. It may have been a lot of money to make this new hire but it will be well worth not keep a good employee if they are producing to the standards they should be. Make sure all incidents are reported from the start to management and make sure that management is doing something about these reported issues. If not then maybe management that is condoning these types of workplace behaviors needs to be looked at also. It is never alright to turn a blind eye to unsavory situations in the workplace in hopes of the events that are occurring will go away. It is best to be on top o f each and every event as it happens and that consequences are being given as needed. A happy and productive workplace is the goal of every business but we must all do our part to be successful in having this outcome. Having current employees fill out confidential questionnaires and surveys on how they feel working for our company and what changes they would like see put into place. Freuds Cases of Hysteria: Birth of Psychoanalysis Freuds Cases of Hysteria: Birth of Psychoanalysis Abstract This thesis returns to the original case histories that Freud wrote on the patients he treated for hysteria. Here in these early works, the beginnings of psychoanalytical theory take shape in the acceptance of purely psychological theories of hysteria. Catharsis leads to the first inklings of repression which requires the use of free association, which again leads into Freuds attempt to explain the strange neuroses he sees through seduction theory, which is again transformed as his thinking moves on. Through Anna O, Frau Emmy von N. and Dora, Freud discovered the seeds of what would become his all-encompassing theory of the human psyche. Modern reinterpretations (e.g. Rosenbaum Muroff, 1984) of those early cases that form the basis of modern psychoanalysis have come and gone, but the original texts remain as historical testament to the fermenting of those fundamental ideas. Introduction Hysteria has been a hugely popular subject for research in psychoanalysis and in the history of ideas. Its roots are clearly signalled by the Greek word from which the word comes: uterus. Indeed the uterus was seen by Egyptians as a mobile organism that could move about of its own will when it chose to do so this caused the disturbances only seen (or acknowledged) in women. Treatments for this disease included trying to entice the uterus back into the body with the use of attractive-smelling substances as well as the driving down of the uterus from above by the eating of noxious substances. Just under four thousand years later, the formulation and treatment of hysterics had barely improved. The history of hysteria shows how it has often been seen as a physical disorder, rather than a mental one. Borossa (2001) describes some of the most common symptoms of hysteria as involving paralysis of the limbs, coughing, fainting, the loss of speech and parallel to this the sudden proficiency in another language. The change of viewpoint that lead up to Freuds analysis was slow in coming, and, as Bernheimer (1985) describes, only showed the first signs of changing in the seventeenth century with the first questions being raised that perhaps hysteria had its origins in a mental disturbance of some kind. Antecedent to Freuds interest in hysteria, it was the clinical neurologist, Charcot, who had a great influence on the field and accepted, by his methods, a more psychological explanation. Although sexual factors had long been implicated in the aetiology of hysteria (Ellenberger, 1970), Charcot did not agree that they were a sine qua non although he did maintain that they played an important part. He treated patients using a form of hypnosis and eventually his formulation of how hysteria was produced and treated was closely intertwined with the hypnosis itself. It was this use of hypnosis that interested Freud and it was the implication of sexual factors in hysteria that was eventually to become influential. It seemed that hysteria and hypnosis might offer Freud the chance to investigate the link between mind and body (Schoenwald, 1956). Anna O: The First Psychoanalytical Patient The literature often describes Anna O as the first ever patient of psychoanalysis. As it is notoriously difficult to define precisely what psychoanalysis might mean because of its shifting nature through time, this is a claim that is clearly interpretational. Still, the fact that this claim is made raises the interest into precisely what it was that marked out Anna Os treatment and the theories accompanying it from what had gone before. Although Anna O was not a patient of Freud, but a patient of his close colleague at the time, Joseph Breuer, he took a great interest in her case and its treatment, and from it flowed some of the foundational aspects of psychoanalysis both through the analysis of this case and Freuds reaction and reinterpretation of it. One of the reasons that Freud was interested in Anna O was that she represented an extremely unusual case of hysteria. Anna O had first been taken ill while she had been taking care of her dying father. At first she suffered from a harsh cough which soon expanded into a range of other perplexing symptoms. Freud Breuer (1991) describe these symptoms as going through four separate stages. The first stage, the latent incubation, occurred while she was nursing her dying father she had become weak, was not eating and would spend much of the afternoons sleeping, which was then unexpectedly followed by a period of excited activity in the evenings. The second stage, which had begun around the time Breuer started treating her, contained a strange confluence of symptoms. Her vision was affected by a squint, she could no longer move any of the extremities on the right side of her body. The third stage, which roughly coincided with the death of her father, heralded alternating states of somnam bulism with relative normality. The fourth stage, according to Breuer, is the slow leaking away of these symptoms up until June 1882, almost two years after she had first come to see her physician. The question is, how had these symptoms been interpreted and what had Breuer done in claiming to effect a cure? It is in the case of Anna O that the most basic elements of a new talking cure can be seen. As told by Breuer, it is a treatment that grew organically, as if by its own power, as he continued to see the patient. Often, in the afternoons, when the patient would habitually fall into an auto-hypnotic state, she would utter odd words or phrases, which, when questioned by those around her, would become elaborated into stories, sometimes taking the form of fairytales. These stories told to Breuer, changed in character over the period of Anna Os treatment, moving from those that were light and poetic, through to those that contained dark and frightening imagery. The unusual thing about these stories was that after they were told, it was as though a demon had been released from the patient and she became calmer and open to reason, cheerful even, often for a period of twenty-four hours afterwards. There seemed to be, staring Breuer in the face, some kind of connection between the stories that Anna O told him and the symptoms which she was manifesting. It was here that Freud was to find the roots of a purely psychological explanation of hysteria. Breuer describes numerous examples of this connection. On one occasion Anna O appeared to be suffering from an uncontrollable thirst and was given to demanding water, although when it was brought, she would refuse to touch it. After six weeks of this continuing, one day, again in an auto-hypnotic state, she started to tell a story about a friend who had allowed her dog to drink out of a glass. This had apparently caused the patient considerable distress and seemed to have led to pent-up anger, which was expressed on this occasion to Breuer. Afterwards Breuer was surprised to find that her previous craving and then abhorrence of water had disappeared. Other similar connections between symptoms and a story told by the patient were also s een by Breuer so that eventually he came up with the theory that the patient could be cured systematically by going through the symptoms to find the event that had caused their onset. Once the event had been described, as long as it was with sufficient emotional vigour, the patient would show remission of that symptom. It was by this method that Breuer claimed to have effected a cure of Anna O over the period of the treatment. It is from this case, although not in the immediate reporting by Breuer, that some of the most fundamental principles of psychoanalysis begin to form. An element of the story that has now passed into psychoanalytic legend, with some accepting its truth while others rejecting it, provides a more dramatic ending to the therapeutic relationship than that presented by Breuer. According to Freud (1970) in his letters, he pieced together an alternative account of what had happened at the end of Anna Os therapy. According to Freud, Breuer had been treating Anna O in the way he had discovered, as previously described, and had finally reached the point where her symptoms had been removed. Later that day he was called back to his patient to find her in considerable apparent pain in her abdomen. When she was asked what was wrong she replied that, Dr. Bs child is coming! This immediately sent Breuer away from her at the highest speed as he was not able to cope with this new revelation. He then p assed her onto a colleague for further treatment as he had already realised that his wife was jealous of his treatment of Anna O and this new revelation only compounded the problem. Forrester (1990) draws attention to the fact that Breuer acknowledged the importance of sexuality in the causes of neuroses. But despite this, he backed away from Anna Os case as soon as it came to the surface. As Forrester (1990) points out, Freud sees this as Breuers mistake and sees in it the birth of a psychoanalysis, especially one of its most important aspects: transference, and more specifically: sexual transference. Through the way that Breuer describes Anna Os progress in his new type of therapy, the path which the theory of hysteria and its treatment takes gradually emerges. Although Anna Os case was reported later it was Breuer Freud (1893) that used her case as the basis for their theory of hysteria. Breuer Freud (1893) state that they believe that the symptoms of hysteria have, at their root cause, some kind of causal event, perhaps occurring many years before the symptoms expose themselves. The patient is unlikely to easily reveal what this event is simply because they are not consciously aware of what it is, or that there is a causal connection. They are not worried by the seeming disproportionate nature of the precipitating event and subsequent symptoms. In fact they welcome this disproportionate nature as a defining characteristic of hysteria. Their analysis likens the root cause, or pathogenesis, of hysteria to that caused by a traumatic neurosis    perhaps similar to what we would now call post-traumatic stress disorder. The patient has, therefore, suffered a psychical trauma that manifests itself in this hysteria. The idea that the psychical trauma simply has a precipitating effect on the symptoms is dismissed by the authors referring to the evidence they have from the case studies of the remarkable progress their patients made after the memory of the psychical trauma has been exorcised through its explication and re-experiencing. Importantly, in defining the problem, Breuer Freud (1893) see the symptoms as a kind of failure of reaction to the original event. The memory of the event can only fade if the reaction to that event has not been suppressed. And it is here that there is a clear precursor to ideas central to later Freudian theory about the nature and causes of repression. In normal reactions to psychical traumas, the authors talk of a cathartic effect resulting in a release of the energy. The reverse of this, the suppression of catharsis (Freeman, 1972), is seen here as the cause of the symptoms adequately evidenced by the new treatment of a kind of delayed catharsis that appears to release the patient from their symptoms. What, then, are the mechanisms by which a psychical trauma of some kind is not reacted to sufficiently? Two answers are provided here, the first that because of the circumstances of the trauma, it was not possible to form a reaction in other words the reactions is suppressed. The second is that a reaction may not have been possible due to the mental state of the person at that time for example during a period of paralysing fear. The circumstances in which the failure of a reaction occurs is also instrumental in the burying of these thoughts and feelings and helps to explain why the patient themselves is not able to access them in the normal ways. Frau Emmy von N. Freuds interest in hysteria and in hypnosis was certainly piqued by both Charcot and Breuer and having collaborated on the latters work with Anna O including the belief that he had found a theory of practical benefit it was only a matter of time before he became further involved in the treatment of hysteria himself. Reported as the second case history in The Studies on Hysteria, (Breuer Freud, 1991) a patient of Freuds, Frau Emmy von N., exhibited symptoms that typified hysteria and Freud resolved to treat her. He reports that the patient was 40 years old, was from a good family and of high education and intelligence. She had been widowed at a young age, leaving her to look after her two children this she ascribed as the cause of her current malady. Freud describes her first meeting as being continually interrupted by the patient breaking off, and suddenly displaying signs of disgust and horror on her face while telling him to, Keep still! and other similar remonstrations. Apart from this the patient also had a series of tics, some facial, but the most pronounced being a clacking sound which littered her utterances. Freuds initial treatment was more physical than mental. She was told to take warm baths and be given massages. This was combined with hypnosis in which Freud simply suggested that she sleep well and that her symptoms would lessen. This was helped by the fact that Freud reports that Frau Emmy von N. was an extremely good hypnotic subject he only had to raise his finger and make a few simple suggestions to put her into a trance. Freud wonders whether this compliance is due to previous exposure to hypnosis and a desire to please. A week later Freud asked his patient why she was so easily frightened. She replied with a story about a traumatic experience that had occurred when she was younger her older brothers and sisters had thrown dead animals at her. As she described these stories to Freud, he reports that she was, panting for breath as well as displaying obvious difficulty with the emotions that she was dealing with. After these emotions have been expressed, she became calmer and more peaceful. Freud also uses touch to reinforce his suggestion that these unnerving images have been removed. Under hypnosis, Freud continued to elicit these stories that demonstrated why she was so often nervous. She explained to Freud that she had once had a maidservant who told her stories of life in an asylum including beatings and patients being tied to chairs. Freud then explained to her that this was not the usual situation in asylums. She had also apparently seen hallucinations at one point, seeing the same person in tw o places and being transfixed by it. While she had been nursing her dying brother, who was taking large quantities of morphine for the pain he was in, he would frequently grab her suddenly. Freud saw this as part of a pattern of her being seized against her will and resolved to investigate it further. It was a few days after this that quite a significant point in the therapy came. Emmy von N. was again explaining about the frightening stories of the asylum and Freud stopped himself from correcting her, intuitively realising that he had to let her give full vent to her fears, without redirecting her course. This is perhaps a turning point in the way in which Freud treated his patient, made clearer by the historical context in which this scene operates. While still seen as authority figures now, physicians were much stronger authority figures then. This combined with the greater imbalance of power between men and women would have meant that the patient would be naturally hesitant about taking any control over their own treatment. Forrester (1990) sees this as a shift in the pattern of authority between the doctor and the patient that originated in Breuers treatment of Anna O a move from the telling the patient what to do, to listening to what the patient has to say. Forrester (1990 ) constructs the relationship that Freud began to build with Emmy von N. as more of a framework of authority within which the patient was able to express her thoughts and feelings to the doctor and in this sense the doctors job is to help the patient keep up this outpouring of stories. At this stage of the development of the therapy, the facilitation of the story-telling is being achieved by hypnosis, although later Freud was to move away from this. How great the shift in the power balance was, it is difficult to tell a this distance, but what is clear from the case report is that Emmy von N.s case provided a much more convoluted series of psychical traumas and symptoms than that presented by Anna O. While Anna Os symptoms seemed to match the traumatic events rather neatly, Emmy von Ns mind was not nearly as well organised. At one point Freud discovers that taking the lift to his office causes his patient a considerable amount of stress. To try and examine where this comes from he explores whether she has had any previous traumatic experiences in lifts a logical first step within the theoretical framework. Coincidentally, it appears, the patient mentions that she is very worried about her daughter in relation to elevators. The next logical step then should be that talking about this fear should release the affect and lead to catharsis, but this is not what Freud finds. The next part of the puzzle is revealed when he finds out t hat she is currently menstruating, then finally the last part falls into place when he finds out that as her daughter has been suffering ovarian problems, she has had to travel in a lift in order to meet with her doctor. After some deliberation Freud realises that there is in fact a false connection between the patients menstruation and the worry at her daughter using a lift. It is this confusion of connections that Freud begins to realise is a form of defence to the traumatic thoughts. Freuds Treatment of Hysteria In the final part of Studies in Hysteria Freud sets out his theory of hysteria and what he has learnt about its treatment. Not only does this part of the book recap some of the themes already discussed but it also highlights some future direction in which Freuds work would travel. Two key signposts are seen: first in his stance on hypnotism, and secondly in his view on what constitutes hysteria. In an attempt to be of benefit to patients with hysteria, who he believed this treatment would help, he tried to treat as many as possible. The problem for him was how to tell the difference between a patient with hysteria and one without. Freud chose an interesting solution to what might have been a protracted problem of diagnosis. He simply treated patients who seemed   to have hysteria and let the results of that treatment speak for themselves. What this immediately did was to widen out the object of his enquiry to neuroses in general. Picking up on the lightly touched theme of sexual tr ansference between Breuer and Anna O mentioned earlier, Freud made his feelings about the roots of neurotic problems quite clear, and in the process set the agenda for psychoanalysis for the next century or more. He believed that one of the primal factors in neuroses lay in sexual matters. In particular Freud came to acknowledge that peoples neuroses rarely came in a pure form, as the early and almost impossibly neat case of Anna O had signposted, and that in fact people were more of a mixed bag. Looking back through the cases reported in Studies on Hysteria Freud explains that he came to see a sexual undercurrent in his notes that had not been at the forefront of his mind when he had treated the patients. Especially in the case of Anna O as already noted Freud felt Breuer had missed a trick. What these ideas seem to be adding up to is almost a rejection of hysteria, if not as a separate diagnosis, certainly as a category of disease practically amenable to treatment. Freud, however, is defensive about rejecting the idea of hysteria as a separate diagnosis, despite the fact that that is the direction in which his thoughts are heading. At this stage he believes it can be treated as a separate part of a patients range of symptoms and the effect of this treatment will be governed by its relative importance overall. Those patients, like Anna O, who have relatively pure cases of hysteria will respond well to the cathartic treatment, while those diluted cases will not. The second key signpost for the future of psychoanalysis was Freuds use of hypnosis. What he found was that many of the patients he saw were simply not hypnotisable Freud claims unwillingness on their part but other writers are of the opinion that he was simply not that good at it (Forrester, 1990). This was a problem for Freud because Breuers formulation of the treatment for hysteria required that events were recollected that were not normally available to a person. Hypnosis had originally proved a good method and indeed in Anna Os case the only method for gaining access to these past events. In response, Freud now turned away from hypnosis to develop his own techniques for eliciting the patients traumatic events. These were quite simple: he insisted that the patient remember what the traumatic event was, and if they still could not, he would ask the patient to lie down and close their eyes nowadays one of the archetypal images of patient and analyst. Freud saw the patients relu ctance of his patients to report their traumatic events as a one of the biggest hurdles in his coalescing form of therapy. He came up with the idea that there was some psychical force within the patient that stopped the memories from being retrieved. From the patients he had treated, he had found that the memories that were being held back were often of an embarrassing or shameful nature. If was for this reason that the patient was activating psychical defence mechanisms. At this stage he hoped to be able to show in the future that it was this defence or repulsion of the traumatic event to the depths of the memory that was causing so much psychical pain to the patient. Overcoming this psychical force, Freud found, was not as simple as insisting, and he developed some further techniques. Patients would easily drift off their point or simply dry up and it needed more powerful persuasion to return them to the traumatic event. One particular technique he found extremely useful and would almost invariably use it when treating patients. This involved placing his hand on the patients head and instructing them that when they feel the pressure they will also see an image of their traumatic event. Having assured the patient that whatever they see, they should not worry that this image is inappropriate or too shameful to discuss, then they are asked to attempt a description of the image. Freud believed that this system worked by distracting the patient, in a similar way as hypnosis, from their conscious searching for the psychical trauma and allowed their mind to float free. Even using the new technique of applying pressure, it did not provide direct access to the psychical trauma. What Freud found was that it tended to signal a jumping off point or a way-station, somewhere on the way to or from the trauma. Sometimes the image produced would provide a new starting point from which the patient could work, sometimes it fitted into the flow of the subject of discussion. Occasionally the new image would bring a long-forgotten idea to the patients mind which would surprise them and initially seem to be unrelated, but later turn out to have a connection. Freud was so pleased with his new pressure technique that, in complex cases, he would often use it continuously on the patient. This procedure would bring to light memories that had been hitherto completely forgotten, as well as new connections between these memories and even, sometimes, thoughts that the patient doesnt even believe to be their own. Freud is careful to point out that although his pressure technique was useful, there were a number of very strong forms of defence that stopped him gaining easy access to the patients psychical trauma. He often found that in the first instance, applying pressure by his hand to the patient would not work, but when he insisted to the patient that it would work the next time, it often would. Still, the patient would sometimes immediately reinterpret or, indeed, begin to edit what was seen, thus making the reporting much less useful. Freud makes it clear that sometimes the most useful observations or memories of the patient are those that they consider to be of least use or relevance. Also, the memories will tend to emerge in a haphazard fashion, only later, and with the skill of the analyst, being fitted together into a coherent picture. Freud refers to this as a kind of censoring of the traumatic events, as though it can only be glimpsed in a mirror or partially occluded around a corne r. Slowly but sure the analyst begins to build up a picture with the accretion of material. There is nothing, Freud believed that is not relevant every piece of information is a link in the chain, another clue to the event that has traumatised the psyche. Another major component of psychoanalysis makes its first appearance in the Studies on Hysteria. Freud describes a final defence or block against the work of treating hysteria in the very relationship between the patient and doctor. Indeed, Freud sees this defence is sure to arise, and perhaps the most difficult defence of all to overcome. The first of the three circumstances in which it may arise is a simple, probably small, breakdown in the relationship between the physician and patient. It might be that the patient is unsure about the physicians techniques or alternatively has felt slighted in the treatment in some way. This can be rectified with a sensitive discussion. The second of the three circumstances occurs when the patient becomes fearful that they will lose their independence because of a reliance on their treating physician. As almost all of Freuds patients who had hysteria were women, this could be conceived as a sexual reliance. The third circumstance is where the pati ent begins to take the problem that they are trying to resolve and transfer it onto the physician, thereby seeing their problem there instead of where it really exists. Freud provides the straightforward example of the sexual transference of a female patient of his who suddenly developed the vision of kissing him. He reports that the patient could not be analysed any further until this block had been addressed. The mechanism by which this transference happens, he posits, is that the patient creates a false connection between the compulsion which is the basis for their treatment and the therapist, rather than its original recipient. In treating these defences Freud makes it clear that the main aim should be to make the patient aware that this problem exists, and then once they are aware of it, the problem is largely dealt with. The challenge, then, is getting the patient to admit to these potentially embarrassing feelings. The Aetiology of Hysteria The development of Freuds theory of the aetiology of hysteria provides one of the most insightful, and sometimes controversial, areas of his work. The formation of the theory, like the work on its treatment, provided another important testing ground for some of the basic elements of what would later become psychoanalysis. Previous authors, including Breuer in the joint work with Freud in Studies on Hysteria, gave great weight to the heredity factors in the causes of hysteria. Freud meanwhile acknowledged these ideas, but in Heredity and the Aetiology of the Neuroses (Freud, 1896b) set out the three factors he believed were important and began to formulate a new theory. The causes of hysteria could be broken down into: (1) Preconditions this would include hereditary factors, (2) concurrent causes which are generalised causes and (3) specific causes, these being specific to the hysteria itself. It is in these specific causes he believed he had found an important contribution to aetiology of the condition. One of the common factors of the patients Freud was seeing, and the one he was coming to see as defining, was in their sexual problems. He reports that while many suffered from a range of different symptoms such as constipation, dyspepsia and fatigue, almost all of them had some kind of sexual problems. These ranged from the inability to achieve orgasm to a more general inability to have a satisfying sexually relationship. Freud saw this as a very significant problem as he maintains that the nervous systems needs to be regularly purged of sexual tension. This pattern across his patients, and the development of his theory of traumatic psychical events, led him to wonder what past events could have caused the sexual dysfunction the patients with hysteria were manifesting. Radically, and expecting no small amount of opposition to the idea, Freud advanced the theory that these neuroses were caused by sexual abuse before the age of sexual maturity. Of the thirteen cases that Freud had tre ated at the time of the paper, all of them had been subject to sexual abuse at an early age. However, Freud does make it clear that the information about their sexual lives is not obtained without some considerable pressure, and it only emerges in a fragmentary way that has later to be pieced together by the therapist. At this early stage of the theory, Freud believed that the sexual abuse left a psychical trace and formed the traumatic experience which was locked away in the depths of the mind. These ideas were much further developed and expanded on in Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence (Freud, 1896a). Earlier Freud had grouped together hysteria with hallucinatory states and obsessions (Freud, 1894) and had begun to formulate the idea that all of these conditions had a common aetiology. In particular, Freud felt these were all part of an area where the ideas of psychological defences and psychological repression were important. Freud had found that patients he had seen had suffered sexual abuse sometimes as early as two years old and up to the age of ten, which he drew as an artificial cut-off point. What other theorists saw as a heredity, Freud saw as the confluence of factors for example if a boy had been sexually abused when he was five then it was likely that his brother would have been abused by the same person. Rather than seeing heredity as a separate factor in hysteria, he saw the sexual abuse as a replacement for heredity, sometimes exclusively, as the root cause in itself. The theory shows an interesting divergence in the analysis of obsessional neuroses. Here, Freud believed that the obsessional neuroses were caused by a sexual activity   in childhood rather than the sexual passivity typical of abuse. These ideas linked in neatly to the greater preponderance of obsessional neuroses in males. A logical division is therefore made with the females, the apparently more passive sex suffering from hysteria, while the apparently more active sex suffering from obsessions. In searching for the aetiology of these two conditions, it is here that Freud prefigures his future thinking on stages of sexual development by introducing the idea that the development of neuroses and/or hysteria is/are dependent on when the sexual abuse occurs in the developmental stages of the child, with sexual maturation providing the cut-off point. In The Aetiology of Hysteria Freud again makes clear his divergence from his mentor, Charcot, in claiming that heredity is not the most important factor in the aetiology of hysteria (Freud 1896c). Freud (1896c) travels back through the life-histories of the patients he has treated looking for the original source of the psychical trauma, discounting all sexual experiences at puberty and later. It is only in pre-pubescent children, when the potential for harm is at its greatest that there lies a sufficient cause. Freuds theory revolves around the idea that at a